China’s Extraterritorial Influence in Malaysia and Singapore: Two Case Studies

Executive Summary

This report examines the risks posed by the People's Republic of China's (PRC) expanding extraterritorial legal framework and transnational repression (TNR) activities in Malaysia and Singapore. While neither country openly aligns with Beijing, both maintain deep economic, political, and legal ties with China that create vulnerabilities to pressure. China increasingly combines formal legal cooperation with informal influence networks to advance its interests overseas, creating risks for sovereignty, human rights, and the rule of law. Consequently, policymakers in Malaysia and Singapore should take measures to strengthen their resilience against such demands, in order to ensure they are not complicit in human rights violations, and to secure their sovereignty and national self-determination. 

Key findings

The PRC has developed an increasingly expansive body of extraterritorial legislation, underpinned by an exceptionally broad conception of national security, and has demonstrated a growing willingness to enforce its interests beyond its borders. While Malaysia and Singapore have different political systems, they both demonstrate structural vulnerabilities that could facilitate PRC-led transnational repression, including deep economic interdependence with China, substantial legal and law enforcement cooperation, large Chinese diaspora communities, and extensive business and political links with Chinese entities.

Malaysia

Although Malaysia has no formal extradition treaty with China, existing legal cooperation and executive discretion create alternative pathways through which politically motivated removals could occur. Case studies demonstrate that:

• Immigration powers can be used in ways resembling "extradition by stealth", whereby people are deported through executive authority rather than formal extradition processes;

• Previous deportations of Uyghurs illustrate Malaysia's willingness to cooperate with Chinese requests, dependent on political circumstances;

• Decisions on legal cooperation have varied significantly depending on domestic political interests and changing public attitudes towards China.

China's influence in Malaysia is reinforced through major investments in strategic  sectors; extensive business networks; influential Chinese-language media; and relationships spanning multiple political parties and business associations.  Growing Chinese involvement in Malaysia's digital infrastructure and AI ecosystem raises longer-term concerns regarding surveillance, data security, and digital repression.

Singapore

Singapore presents several significant risk factors, including: 

• Extensive legal and judicial cooperation with China and Hong Kong;

• An extradition treaty with Hong Kong that could potentially create indirect pathways to the PRC;

• Broad executive discretion over immigration and repatriation decisions;

• Extensive technological and commercial integration with Chinese firms.

Singapore has demonstrated a willingness to deny entry to, prosecute, or restrict activities involving individuals critical of Beijing, although whether these actions result from direct PRC pressure or domestic political considerations often remains unclear. Its role as a regional digital hub, combined with the significant presence of Chinese technology companies and data infrastructure (many of whom may be “Singapore-washing” to get around increasing perceptions of risks linked to Chinese firms in the US, Europe and elsewhere), creates particular vulnerabilities to digital forms of transnational repression.United Front-linked networks and longstanding elite relationships provide additional informal channels through which Beijing may exercise influence over political and business decision-makers.

Neither Malaysia nor Singapore consistently acquiesces to Beijing's demands. Instead, both generally pursue pragmatic policies intended to balance strategic relations with China against their own national interests. Nevertheless, existing legal frameworks, political discretion, economic dependence, and informal influence networks create opportunities through which Beijing could seek cooperation in politically motivated cases. The principal risks lie across the accumulation of discretionary powers, informal influence, and political incentives that could facilitate cooperation with PRC transnational repression efforts.